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PACEM IN TERRIS
ENCYCLICAL OF POPE JOHN XXIII - APRIL 11, 1963
ON ESTABLISHING UNIVERSAL PEACE IN TRUTH, JUSTICE, CHARITY, AND
LIBERTY |
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To Our Venerable Brethren the Patriarchs,
Primates, Archbishops, Bishops, and all other Local Ordinaries who
are at Peace and in Communion with the Apostolic See, and to the
Clergy and Faithful of the entire Catholic World, and to all Men
of Good Will.
Venerable Brethren and Dearest Sons Health and Apostolic Benediction.
Peace on Earth-which man throughout the ages has so longed for and
sought after-can never be established, never guaranteed, except
by the diligent observance of the divinely established order.
Order in the Universe
2. That a marvelous order predominates in the world of living beings
and in the forces of nature, is the plain lesson which the progress
of modern research and the discoveries of technology teach us. And
it is part of the greatness of man that he can appreciate that order,
and devise the means for harnessing those forces for his own benefit.
3. But what emerges first and foremost from the progress of scientific
knowledge and the inventions of technology is the infinite greatness
of God Himself, who created both man and the universe. Yes; out
of nothing He made all things, and filled them with the fullness
of His own wisdom and goodness. Hence, these are the words the holy
psalmist used in praise of God: "O Lord, our Lord: how admirable
is thy name in the whole earth!" (1) And elsewhere he says:
"How great are thy works, O Lord! Thou hast made all things
in wisdom." (2)
Moreover, (2a) God created man "in His own image and likeness,"
(3) endowed him with intelligence and freedom, and made him lord
of creation. All this the psalmist proclaims when he says: "Thou
hast made him a little less than the angels: thou hast crowned him
with glory and honor, and hast set him over the works of thy hands.
Thou hast subjected all things under his feet." (4)
Order in Human Beings
4. And yet there is a disunity among individuals and among nations
which is in striking contrast to this perfect order in the universe.
One would think that the relationships that bind men together could
only be governed by force.
5. But the world's Creator has stamped man's inmost being with an
order revealed to man by his conscience; and his conscience insists
on his preserving it. Men "show the work of the law written
in their hearts. Their conscience bears witness to them." (5)
And how could it be otherwise? All created being reflects the infinite
wisdom of God. It reflects it all the more clearly, the higher it
stands in the scale of perfection. (6)
6. But the mischief is often caused by erroneous opinions. Many
people think that the laws which govern man's relations with the
State are the same as those which regulate the blind, elemental
forces of the universe. But it is not so; the laws which govern
men are quite different. The Father of the universe has inscribed
them in man's nature, and that is where we must look for them; there
and nowhere else.
7. These laws clearly indicate how a man must behave toward his
fellows in society, and how the mutual relationships between the
members of a State and its officials are to be conducted. They show
too what principles must govern the relations between States; and
finally, what should be the relations between individuals or States
on the one hand, and the world-wide community of nations on the
other. Men's common interests make it imperative that at long last
a world-wide community of nations be established.
I. ORDER BETWEEN MEN
8. We must devote our attention first of all to that order which
should prevail among men.
9. Any well-regulated and productive association of men in society
demands the acceptance of one fundamental principle: that each individual
man is truly a person. His is a nature, that is, endowed with intelligence
and free will. As such he has rights and duties, which together
flow as a direct consequence from his nature. These rights and duties
are universal and inviolable, and therefore altogether inalienable.
(7)
10. When, furthermore, we consider man's personal dignity from the
standpoint of divine revelation, inevitably our estimate of it is
incomparably increased. Men have been ransomed by the blood of Jesus
Christ. Grace has made them sons and friends of God, and heirs to
eternal glory.
Rights
11. But first We must speak of man's rights. Man has the right to
live. He has the right to bodily integrity and to the means necessary
for the proper development of life, particularly food, clothing,
shelter, medical care, rest, and, finally, the necessary social
services. In consequence, he has the right to be looked after in
the event of illhealth; disability stemming from his work; widowhood;
old age; enforced unemployment; or whenever through no fault of
his own he is deprived of the means of livelihood. (8)
Rights Pertaining to Moral and Cultural Values
12. Moreover, man has a natural right to be respected. He has a
right to his good name. He has a right to freedom in investigating
the truth, and-within the limits of the moral order and the common
good-to freedom of speech and publication, and to freedom to pursue
whatever profession he may choose. He has the right, also, to be
accurately informed about public events.
13. He has the natural right to share in the benefits of culture,
and hence to receive a good general education, and a technical or
professional training consistent with the degree of educational
development in his own country. Furthermore, a system must be devised
for affording gifted members of society the opportunity of engaging
in more advanced studies, with a view to their occupying, as far
as possible, positions of responsibility in society in keeping with
their natural talent and acquired skill. (9)
The Right to Worship God According to One's Conscience
14. Also among man's rights is that of being able to worship God
in accordance with the right dictates of his own conscience, and
to profess his religion both in private and in public. According
to the clear teaching of Lactantius, "this is the very condition
of our birth, that we render to the God who made us that just homage
which is His due; that we acknowledge Him alone as God, and follow
Him. It is from this ligature of piety, which binds us and joins
us to God, that religion derives its name.'' (l0)
Hence, too, Pope Leo XIII declared that "true freedom, freedom
worthy of the sons of God, is that freedom which most truly safeguards
the dignity of the human person. It is stronger than any violence
or injustice. Such is the freedom which has always been desired
by the Church, and which she holds most dear. It is the sort of
freedom which the Apostles resolutely claimed for themselves. The
apologists defended it in their writings; thousands of martyrs consecrated
it with their blood.'' (11)
The Right to Choose Freely One's State in Life
15. Human beings have also the right to choose for themselves the
kind of life which appeals to them: whether it is to found a family-in
the founding of which both the man and the woman enjoy equal rights
and duties-or to embrace the priesthood or the religious life. (l2)
16. The family, founded upon marriage freely contracted, one and
indissoluble, must be regarded as the natural, primary cell of human
society. The interests of the family, therefore, must be taken very
specially into consideration in social and economic affairs, as
well as in the spheres of faith and morals. For all of these have
to do with strengthening the family and assisting it in the fulfilment
of its mission.
17. Of course, the support and education of children is a right
which belongs primarily to the parents. (l3)
Economic Rights
18. In the economic sphere, it is evident that a man has the inherent
right not only to be given the opportunity to work, but also to
be allowed the exercise of personal initiative in the work he does.
(14)
19. The conditions in which a man works form a necessary corollary
to these rights. They must not be such as to weaken his physical
or moral fibre, or militate against the proper development of adolescents
to manhood. Women must be accorded such conditions of work as are
consistent with their needs and responsibilities as wives and mothers.
(15)
20. A further consequence of man's personal dignity is his right
to engage in economic activities suited to his degree of responsibility.
(l6) The worker is likewise entitled to a wage that is determined
in accordance with the precepts of justice. This needs stressing.
The amount a worker receives must be sufficient, in proportion to
available funds, to allow him and his family a standard of living
consistent with human dignity. Pope Pius XII expressed it in these
terms:
"Nature imposes work upon man as a duty, and man has the corresponding
natural right to demand that the work he does shall provide him
with the means of livelihood for himself and his children. Such
is nature's categorical imperative for the preservation of man.''
(l7)
21. As a further consequence of man's nature, he has the right to
the private ownership of property, including that of productive
goods. This, as We have said elsewhere, is "a right which constitutes
so efficacious a means of asserting one's personality and exercising
responsibility in every field, and an element of solidity and security
for family life, and of greater peace and prosperity in the State.''
(18)
22. Finally, it is opportune to point out that the right to own
private property entails a social obligation as well. (l9)
The Right of Meeting and Association
23. Men are by nature social, and consequently they have the right
to meet together and to form associations with their fellows. They
have the right to confer on such associations the type of organization
which they consider best calculated to achieve their objectives.
They have also the right to exercise their own initiative and act
on their own responsibility within these associations for the attainment
of the desired results , (20)
24. As We insisted in Our encyclical Mater et Magistra, the founding
of a great many such intermediate groups or societies for the pursuit
of aims which it is not within the competence of the individual
to achieve efficiently, is a matter of great urgency. Such groups
and societies must be considered absolutely essential for the safeguarding
of man's personal freedom and dignity, while leaving intact a sense
of responsibility. (21)
The Right to Emigrate and Immigrate
25. Again, every human being has the right to freedom of movement
and of residence within the confines of his own State. When there
are just reasons in favor of it, he must be permitted to emigrate
to other countries and take up residence there. (22) The fact that
he is a citizen of a particular State does not deprive him of membership
in the human family, nor of citizenship in that universal society,
the common, world-wide fellowship of men.
Political Rights
26. Finally, man's personal dignity involves his right to take an
active part in public life, and to make his own contribution to
the common welfare of his fellow citizens. As Pope Pius XII said,
"man as such, far from being an object or, as it were, an inert
element in society, is rather its subject, its basis and its purpose;
and so must he be esteemed." (23)
27. As a human person he is entitled to the legal protection of
his rights, and such protection must be effective, unbiased, and
strictly just. To quote again Pope Pius XII: "In consequence
of that juridical order willed by God, man has his own inalienable
right to juridical security. To him is assigned a certain, well-defined
sphere of law, immune from arbitrary attack." (24)
Duties
8. The natural rights of which We have so far been speaking are
inextricably bound up with as many duties, all applying to one and
the same person. These rights and duties derive their origin, their
sustenance, and their indestructibility from the natural law, which
in conferring the one imposes the other.
9. Thus, for example, the right to live involves the duty to preserve
one's life; the right to a decent standard of living, the duty to
live in a becoming fashion; the right to be free to seek out the
truth, the duty to devote oneself to an ever deeper and wider search
for it.
Reciprocity of Rights and Duties Between Persons
30. Once this is admitted, it follows that in human society one
man's natural right gives rise to a corresponding duty in other
men; the duty, that is, of recognizing and respecting that right.
Every basic human right draws its authoritative force from the natural
law, which confers it and attaches to it its respective duty. Hence,
to claim one's rights and ignore one's duties, or only half fulfill
them, is like building a house with one hand and tearing it down
with the other.
Mutual Collaboration
31. Since men are social by nature, they must live together and
consult each other's interests. That men should recognize and perform
their respective rights and duties is imperative to a well ordered
society. But the result will be that each individual will make his
whole-hearted contribution to the creation of a civic order in which
rights and duties are ever more diligently and more effectively
observed.
32. For example, it is useless to admit that a man has a right to
the necessities of life, unless we also do all in our power to supply
him with means sufficient for his livelihood.
33. Hence society must not only be well ordered, it must also provide
men with abundant resources. This postulates not only the mutual
recognition and fulfillment of rights and duties, but also the involvement
and collaboration of all men in the many enterprises which our present
civilization makes possible, encourages or indeed demands.
An Attitude of Responsibility
34. Man's personal dignity requires besides that he enjoy freedom
and be able to make up his own mind when he acts. In his association
with his fellows, therefore, there is every reason why his recognition
of rights, observance of duties, and many-sided collaboration with
other men, should be primarily a matter of his own personal decision.
Each man should act on his own initiative, conviction, and sense
of responsibility, not under the constant pressure of external coercion
or enticement. There is nothing human about a society that is welded
together by force. Far from encouraging, as it should, the attainment
of man's progress and perfection, it is merely an obstacle to his
freedom.
Social Life in Truth, Justice, Charity and Freedom
35. Hence, before a society can be considered well-ordered, creative,
and consonant with human dignity, it must be based on truth. St.
Paul expressed this as follows: "Putting away lying, speak
ye the truth every man with his neighbor, for we are members one
of another." (25) And so will it be, if each man acknowledges
sincerely his own rights and his own duties toward others.
Human society, as We here picture it, demands that men be guided
by justice, respect the rights of others and do their duty. It demands,
too, that they be animated by such love as will make them feel the
needs of others as their own, and induce them to share their goods
with others, and to strive in the world to make all men alike heirs
to the noblest of intellectual and spiritual values. Nor is this
enough; for human society thrives on freedom, namely, on the use
of means which are consistent with the dignity of its individual
members, who, being endowed with reason, assume responsibility for
their own actions .
36. And so, dearest sons and brothers, we must think of human society
as being primarily a spiritual reality. By its means enlightened
men can share their knowledge of the truth, can claim their rights
and fulfill their duties, receive encouragement in their aspirations
for the goods of the spirit, share their enjoyment of all the wholesome
pleasures of the world, and strive continually to pass on to others
all that is best in themselves and to make their own the spiritual
riches of others. It is these spiritual values which exert a guiding
influence on culture, economics, social institutions, political
movements and forms, laws, and all the other components which go
to make up the external community of men and its continual development.
God and the Moral Order
37. Now the order which prevails in human society is wholly incorporeal
in nature. Its foundation is truth, and it must be brought into
effect by justice. It needs to be animated and perfected by men's
love for one another, and, while preserving freedom intact, it must
make for an equilibrium in society which is increasingly more human
in character.
38. But such an order-universal, absolute and immutable in its principles-finds
its source in the true, personal and transcendent God. He is the
first truth, the sovereign good, and as such the deepest source
from which human society, if it is to be properly constituted, creative,
and worthy of man's dignity, draws its genuine vitality. (26) This
is what St. Thomas means when he says: "Human reason is the
standard which measures the degree of goodness of the human will,
and as such it derives from the eternal law, which is divine reason
. . . Hence it is clear that the goodness of the human will depends
much more on the eternal law than on human reason." (27)
Characteristics of the Present Day
39. There are three things which characterize our modern age.
40. In the first place we notice a progressive improvement in the
economic and social condition of working men. They began by claiming
their rights principally in the economic and social spheres, and
then proceeded to lay claim to their political rights as well. Finally,
they have turned their attention to acquiring the more cultural
benefits of society.
Today, therefore, working men all over the world are loud in their
demands that they shall in no circumstances be subjected to arbitrary
treatment, as though devoid of intelligence and freedom. They insist
on being treated as human beings, with a share in every sector of
human society: in the socio-economic sphere, in government, and
in the realm of learning and culture.
41. Secondly, the part that women are now playing in political life
is everywhere evident. This is a development that is perhaps of
swifter growth among Christian nations, but it is also happening
extensively, if more slowly, among nations that are heirs to different
traditions and imbued with a different culture. Women are gaining
an increasing awareness of their natural dignity. Far from being
content with a purely passive role or allowing themselves to be
regarded as a kind of instrument, they are demanding both in domestic
and in public life the rights and duties which belong to them as
human persons.
42. Finally, we are confronted in this modern age with a form of
society which is evolving on entirely new social and political lines.
Since all peoples have either attained political independence or
are on the way to attaining it, soon no nation will rule over another
and none will be subject to an alien power.
43. Thus all over the world men are either the citizens of an independent
State, or are shortly to become so; nor is any nation nowadays content
to submit to foreign domination. The longstanding inferiority complex
of certain classes because of their economic and social status,
sex, or position in the State, and the corresponding superiority
complex of other classes, is rapidly becoming a thing of the past.
Equality of Men
44. Today, on the contrary the conviction is widespread that all
men are equal in natural dignity; and so, on the doctrinal and theoretical
level, at least, no form of approval is being given to racial discrimination.
All this is of supreme significance for the formation of a human
society animated by the principles We have mentioned above, for
man's awareness of his rights must inevitably lead him to the recognition
of his duties. The possession of rights involves the duty of implementing
those rights, for they are the expression of a man's personal dignity.
And the possession of rights also involves their recognition and
respect by other people.
45. When society is formed on a basis of rights and duties, men
have an immediate grasp of spiritual and intellectual values, and
have no difficulty in understanding what is meant by truth, justice,
charity and freedom. They become, moreover, conscious of being members
of such a society. And that is not all. Inspired by such principles,
they attain to a better knowledge of the true God-a personal God
transcending human nature. They recognize that their relationship
with God forms the very foundation of their life-the interior life
of the spirit, and the life which they live in the society of their
fellows.
II. RELATIONS BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS AND THE PUBLIC AUTHORITIES
46. Human society can be neither well-ordered nor prosperous without
the presence of those who, invested with legal authority, preserve
its institutions and do all that is necessary to sponsor actively
the interests of all its members. And they derive their authority
from God, for, as St. Paul teaches, "there is no power but
from God". (28)
In his commentary on this passage, St. John Chrysostom writes: "What
are you saying? Is every ruler appointed by God? No, that is not
what I mean, he says, for I am not now talking about individual
rulers, but about authority as such. My contention is that the existence
of a ruling authority-the fact that some should command and others
obey, and that all things not come about as the result of blind
chance-this is a provision of divine wisdom." (29)
God has created men social by nature, and a society cannot "hold
together unless someone is in command to give effective direction
and unity of purpose. Hence every civilized community must have
a ruling authority, and this authority, no less than society itself,
has its source in nature, and consequently has God for its author."
(30)
47. But it must not be imagined that authority knows no bounds.
Since its starting point is the permission to govern in accordance
with right reason, there is no escaping the conclusion that it derives
its binding force from the moral order, which in turn has God as
its origin and end.
Hence, to quote Pope Pius XII, "The absolute order of living
beings, and the very purpose of man-an autonomous being, the subject
of duties and inviolable rights, and the origin and purpose of human
society-have a direct bearing upon the State as a necessary community
endowed with authority. Divest it of this authority, and it is nothing,
it is lifeless.... But right reason, and above all Christian faith,
make it clear that such an order can have no other origin but in
God, a personal God, our Creator. Hence it is from Him that State
officials derive their dignity, for they share to some extent in
the authority of God Himself." (31)
An Appeal to Conscience
48. Hence, a regime which governs solely or mainly by means of threats
and intimidation or promises of reward, provides men with no effective
incentive to work for the common good. And even if it did, it would
certainly be offensive to the dignity of free and rational human
beings. Authority is before all else a moral force. For this reason
the appeal of rulers should be to the individual conscience, to
the duty which every man has of voluntarily contributing to the
common good. But since all men are equal in natural dignity, no
man has the capacity to force internal compliance on another. Only
God can do that, for He alone scrutinizes and judges the secret
counsels of the heart.
49. Hence, representatives of the State have no power to bind men
in conscience, unless their own authority is tied to God's authority,
and is a participation in it. (32)
50. The application of this principle likewise safeguards the dignity
of citizens. Their obedience to civil authorities is never an obedience
paid to them as men. It is in reality an act of homage paid to God,
the provident Creator of the universe, who has decreed that men's
dealings with one another be regulated in accordance with that order
which He Himself has established. And we men do not demean ourselves
in showing due reverence to God. On the contrary, we are lifted
up and ennobled in spirit, for to serve God is to reign. (33)
5l. Governmental authority, therefore, is a postulate of the moral
order and derives from God. Consequently, laws and decrees passed
in contravention of the moral order, and hence of the divine will,
can have no binding force in conscience, since "it is right
to obey God rather than men " (34)
Indeed, the passing of such laws undermines the very nature of authority
and results in shameful abuse. As St. Thomas teaches, "In regard
to the second proposition, we maintain that human law has the rationale
of law in so far as it is in accordance with right reason, and as
such it obviously derives from eternal law. A law which is at variance
with reason is to that extent unjust and has no longer the rationale
of law. It is rather an act of violence." (35)
52. The fact that authority comes from God does not mean that men
have no power to choose those who are to rule the State, or to decide
upon the type of government they want, and determine the procedure
and limitations of rulers in the exercise of their authority. Hence
the above teaching is consonant with any genuinely democratic form
of government. (36)
Attainment of the Common Good is the Purpose of the Public Authority
53. Men, both as individuals and as intermediate groups, are required
to make their own specific contributions to the general welfare.
The main consequence of this is that they must harmonize their own
interests with the needs of others, and offer their goods and services
as their rulers shall direct-assuming, of course, that justice is
maintained and the authorities are acting within the limits of their
competence. Those who have authority in the State must exercise
that authority in a way which is not only morally irreproachable,
but also best calculated to ensure or promote the State's welfare.
54. The attainment of the common good is the sole reason for the
existence of civil authorities. In working for the common good,
therefore, the authorities must obviously respect its nature, and
at the same time adjust their legislation to meet the requirements
of the given situation .(37)
Essentials of the Common Good
55. Among the essential elements of the common good one must certainly
include the various characteristics distinctive of each individual
people. (38) But these by no means constitute the whole of it. For
the common good, since it is intimately bound up with human nature,
can never exist fully and completely unless the human person is
taken into account at all times. Thus, attention must be paid to
the basic nature of the common good and what it is that brings it
about. (39)
56. We must add, therefore, that it is in the nature of the common
good that every single citizen has the right to share in it-although
in different ways, depending on his tasks, merits and circumstances.
Hence every civil authority must strive to promote the common good
in the interest of all, without favoring any individual citizen
or category of citizen. As Pope Leo XIII insisted: "The civil
power must not be subservient to the advantage of any one individual,
or of some few persons; inasmuch as it was established for the common
good of all." (40)
Nevertheless, considerations of justice and equity can at times
demand that those in power pay more attention to the weaker members
of society, since these are at a disadvantage when it comes to defending
their own rights and asserting their legitimate interests. (41)
The Spiritual, Too
57. In this connection, We would draw the attention of Our own sons
to the fact that the common good is something which affects the
needs of the whole man, body and soul. That, then, is the sort of
good which rulers of States must take suitable measure to ensure.
They must respect the hierarchy of values, and aim at achieving
the spiritual as well as the material prosperity of their subjects.
(42)
58. These principles are clearly contained in that passage in Our
encyclical Mater et Magistra where We emphasized that the common
good "must take account of all those social conditions which
favor the full development of human personality. (43)
59. Consisting, as he does, of body and immortal soul, man cannot
in this mortal life satisfy his needs or attain perfect happiness.
Thus, the measures that are taken to implement the common good must
not jeopardize his eternal salvation; indeed, they must even help
him to obtain it. (44)
Responsibilities of the Public Authority, and Rights and Duties
of Individuals
60. It is generally accepted today that the common good is best
safeguarded when personal rights and duties are guaranteed. The
chief concern of civil authorities must therefore be to ensure that
these rights are recognized, respected, co-ordinated, defended and
promoted, and that each individual is enabled to perform his duties
more easily. For "to safeguard the inviolable rights of the
human person, and to facilitate the performance of his duties, is
the principal duty of every public authority." (45)
61. Thus any government which refused to recognize human rights
or acted in violation of them, would not only fail in its duty;
its decrees would be wholly lacking in binding force. (46)
Reconciliation and Protection of Rights and Duties of Individuals
62. One of the principal duties of any government, moreover, is
the suitable and adequate superintendence and co-ordination of men's
respective rights in society. This must be done in such a way 1)
that the exercise of their rights by certain citizens does not obstruct
other citizens in the exercise of theirs; 2) that the individual,
standing upon his own rights, does not impede others in the performance
of their duties; 3) that the rights of all be effectively safeguarded,
and completely restored if they have been violated. (47)
Duty of Promoting the Rights of Individuals
63. In addition, heads of States must make a positive contribution
to the creation of an overall climate in which the individual can
both safeguard his own rights and fulfill his duties, and can do
so readily. For if there is one thing we have learned in the school
of experience, it is surely this: that, in the modern world especially,
political, economic and cultural inequities among citizens become
more and more widespread when public authorities fail to take appropriate
action in these spheres. And the consequence is that human rights
and duties are thus rendered totally ineffective.
64. The public administration must therefore give considerable care
and thought to the question of social as well as economic progress,
and to the development of essential services in keeping with the
expansion of the productive system. Such services include road-building,
transportation, communications, drinking-water, housing, medical
care, ample facilities for the practice of religion, and aids to
recreation. The government must also see to the provision of insurance
facilities, to obviate any likelihood of a citizen's being unable
to maintain a decent standard of living in the event of some misfortune,
or greatly in creased family responsibilities.
The government is also required to show no less energy and efficiency
in the matter of providing opportunities for suitable employment,
graded to the capacity of the workers. It must make sure that working
men are paid a just and equitable wage, and are allowed a sense
of responsibility in the industrial concerns for which they work.
It must facilitate the formation of intermediate groups, so that
the social life of the people may become more fruitful and less
constrained. And finally, it must ensure that everyone has the means
and opportunity of sharing as far as possible in cultural benefits.
Harmonious Relations Between Public Authority's Two Forms of Intervention
65. The common welfare further demands that in their efforts to
co-ordinate and protect, and their efforts to promote, the rights
of citizens, the civil authorities preserve a delicate balance.
An excessive concern for the rights of any particular individuals
or groups might well result in the principal advantages of the State
being in effect monopolized by these citizens. Or again, the absurd
situation can arise where the civil authorities, while taking measures
to protect the rights of citizens, themselves stand in the way of
the full exercise of these rights. "For this principle must
always be retained: that however extensive and far-reaching the
influence of the State on the economy may be, it must never be exerted
to the extent of depriving the individual citizen of his freedom
of action. It must rather augment his freedom, while effectively
guaranteeing the protection of everyone's essential, personal rights."
(48)
66. And the same principle must be adopted by civil authorities
in their various efforts to facilitate the exercise of rights and
performance of duties in every department of social life.
Structure and Operation of the Public Authority
67. For the rest, it is not possible to give a general ruling on
the most suitable form of government, or the ways in which civil
authorities can most effectively fulfill their legislative, administrative,
and judicial functions.
68. In determining what form a particular government shall take,
and the way in which it shall function, a major consideration will
be the prevailing circumstances and the condition of the people;
and these are things which vary in different places and at different
times.
We think, however, that it is in keeping with human nature for the
State to be given a form which embodies a threefold division of
public office properly corresponding to the three main functions
of public authority. In such a State a precise legal framework is
provided, not only for the official functions of government, but
also for the mutual relations between citizens and public officials.
This will obviously afford sure protection to citizens, both in
the safeguarding of their rights and in the fulfilment of their
duties.
69. If, however, this juridical and political structure is to realize
its potential benefits, it is absolutely essential that public officials
do their utmost to solve the problems that arise; and they must
do so by using policies and techniques which it is within their
competence to implement, and which suit the actual condition of
the State. It is also essential that, despite constantly changing
conditions, legislators never disregard the moral law or constitutional
provision, nor act at variance with the exigencies of the common
good. And as justice must be the guiding principle in the administration
of the State, and executives must thoroughly understand the law
and carefully weigh all attendant circumstances, so too in the courts:
justice must be administered impartially, and judges must be wholly
incorrupt and uninfluenced by the solicitations of interested parties.
The good order of society also requires that individuals and subsidiary
groups within the State be effectively protected by law in the affirmation
of their rights and the performance of their duties, both in their
relations with each other and with government officials. (49)
Law and Conscience
70. There can be no doubt that a State juridical system which conforms
to the principles of justice and rightness, and corresponds to the
degree of civic maturity evinced by the State in question, is highly
conducive to the attainment of the common good.
71. And yet social life is so complex, varied and active in this
modern age, that even a juridical system which has been established
with great prudence and foresight often seems inadequate to the
need.
72. Moreover, the relations of citizens with each other, of citizens
and intermediate groups with public authorities, and the relations
between public authorities of the same State, are sometimes seen
to be of so ambiguous and explosive a nature, that they are not
susceptible of being regulated by any hard and fast system of laws.
In such cases, if the authorities want to preserve the State's juridical
system intact-in itself and in its application to specific cases-and
if they want to minister to the principal needs of society, adapt
the laws to the conditions of modern life and seek solutions to
new problems, then it is essential that they have a clear idea of
the nature and limits of their own legitimate spheres of action.
Their calmness, integrity, clear sightedness and perseverance must
be such that they will recognize at once what is needed in a given
situation, and act with promptness and efficiency. (50)
Citizens' Participation in Public Life
73. A natural consequence of men's dignity is unquestionably their
right to take an active part in government, though their degree
of participation will necessarily depend on the stage of development
reached by the political community of which they are members.
74. For the rest, this right to take part in government opens out
to men a new and extensive field of opportunity for service. A situation
is created in which civic authorities can, from the greater frequency
of their contacts and discussions with the citizens, gain a clearer
idea of what policies are in fact effectual for the common good;
and in a system which allows for a regular succession of public
officials, the authority of these officials, far from growing old
and feeble, takes on a new vitality in keeping with the progressive
development of human society. (51)
Characteristics of the Present Day
75. There is every indication at the present time that these aims
and ideals are giving rise to various demands concerning the juridical
organization of States. The first is this: that a clear and precisely
worded charter of fundamental human rights be formulated and incorporated
into the State's general constitutions.
76. Secondly, each State must have a public constitution, couched
in juridical terms, laying down clear rules relating to the designation
of public officials, their reciprocal relations, spheres of competence
and prescribed methods of operation.
77. The final demand is that relations between citizens and public
authorities be described in terms of rights and duties. It must
be clearly laid down that the principal function of public authorities
is to recognize, respect, co-ordinate, safeguard and promote citizens'
rights and duties
78. We must, however, reject the view that the will of the individual
or the group is the primary and only source of a citizen's rights
and duties, and of the binding force of political constitutions
and the government's authority. (52)
79. But the aspirations We have mentioned are a clear indication
of the fact that men, increasingly aware nowadays of their personal
dignity, have found the incentive to enter government service and
demand constitutional recognition for their own inviolable rights.
Not content with this, they are demanding, too, the observance of
constitutional procedures in the appointment of public authorities,
and are insisting that they exercise their office within this constitutional
framework.
III. RELATIONS BETWEEN STATES
80. With respect to States themselves, Our predecessors have constantly
taught, and We wish to lend the weight of Our own authority to their
teaching, that nations are the subjects of reciprocal rights and
duties. Their relationships, therefore, must likewise be harmonized
in accordance with the dictates of truth, justice, willing cooperation,
and freedom. The same law of nature that governs the life and conduct
of individuals must also regulate the relations of political communities
with one another.
81. This will be readily understood when one reflects that it is
quite impossible for political leaders to lay aside their natural
dignity while acting in their country's name and in its interests
They are still bound by the natural law, which is the rule that
governs all moral conduct, and they have no authority to depart
from its slightest precepts.
82. The idea that men, by the fact of their appointment to public
office, are compelled to lay aside their own humanity, is quite
inconceivable Their very attainment to this high-ranking office
was due to their exceptional gifts and intellectual qualities, which
earned for them their reputation as outstanding representatives
of the body politic
83. Moreover, a ruling authority is indispensable to civil society.
That is a fact which follows from the moral order itself. Such authority,
therefore, cannot be misdirected against the moral order. It would
immediately cease to exit, being deprived of its whole raison d'etre.
God Himself warns us of this: "Hear, therefore, ye kings, and
understand: learn, ye that are judges of the ends of the earth.
Give ear, you that rule the people, and that please yourselves in
multitudes of nations. For power is given you by the Lord, and strength
by the Most High, who will examine your works, and search out your
thoughts." (53)
84. And lastly one must bear in mind that, even when it regulates
the relations between States, authority must be exercised for the
promotion of the common good. That is the primary reason for its
existence.
An lmperative of the Common Good
85. But one of the principal imperatives of the common good is the
recognition of the moral order and the unfailing observance of its
precepts. "A firmly established order between political communities
must be founded on the unshakable and unmoving rock of the moral
law, that law which is revealed in the order of nature by the Creator
Himself, and engraved indelibly on men's hearts . . . Its principles
are beacon lights to guide the policies of men and nations. They
are also warning lights-providential signs-which men must heed if
their laborious efforts to establish a new order are not to encounter
perilous storms and shipwreck." (54)
In Truth
86. The first point to be settled is that mutual ties between States
must be governed by truth. Truth calls for the elimination of every
trace of racial discrimination, and the consequent recognition of
the inviolable principle that all States are by nature equal in
dignity.
Each of them accordingly has the right to exist, to develop, and
to possess the necessary means and accept a primary responsibility
for its own development. Each is also legitimately entitled to its
good name and to the respect which is its due.
87. As we know from experience, men frequently differ widely in
knowledge, virtue, intelligence and wealth, but that is no valid
argument in favor of a system whereby those who are in a position
of superiority impose their will arbitrarily on others. On the contrary,
such men have a greater share in the common responsibility to help
others to reach perfection by their mutual efforts.
88. So, too, on the international level: some nations may have attained
to a superior degree of scientific, cultural and economic development.
But that does not entitle them to exert unjust political domination
over other nations. It means that they have to make a greater contribution
to the common cause of social progress.
89. The fact is that no one can be by nature superior to his fellows,
since all men are equally noble in natural dignity. And consequently
there are no differences at all between political communities from
the point of view of natural dignity. Each State is like a body,
the members of which are human beings. And, as we know from experience,
nations can be highly sensitive in matters in any way touching their
dignity and honor; and with good reason.
The Question of Propaganda
90. Truth further demands an attitude of unrufffled impartiality
in the use of the many aids to the promotion and spread of mutual
understanding between nations which modern scientific progress has
made available. This does not mean that people should be prevented
from drawing particular attention to the virtues of their own way
of life, but it does mean the utter rejection of ways of disseminating
information which violate the principles of truth and justice, and
injure the reputation of another nation. (55)
In Justice
91. Relations between States must furthermore be regulated by justice.
This necessitates both the recognition of their mutual rights, and,
at the same time, the fulfilment of their respective duties.
92. States have the right to existence, to self development, and
to the means necessary to achieve this. They have the right to play
the leading part in the process of their own development, and the
right to their good name and due honors. Consequently, States are
likewise in duty bound to safeguard all such rights effectively,
and to avoid any action that could violate them. And just as individual
men may not pursue their own private interests in a way that is
unfair and detrimental to others, so too it would be criminal in
a State to aim at improving itself by the use of methods which involve
other nations in injury and unjust oppression. There is a saying
of St. Augustine which has particular relevance in this context:
"Take away justice, and what are kingdoms but mighty bands
of robbers "(56)
93. There may be, and sometimes is, a clash of interests among States,
each striving for its own development. When differences of this
sort arise, they must be settled in a truly human way, not by armed
force nor by deceit or trickery. There must be a mutual assessment
of the arguments and feelings on both sides, a mature and objective
investigation of the situation, and an equitable reconciliation
of opposing views.
The Treatment of Minorities
94. A special instance of this clash of interests is furnished by
that political trend (which since the nineteenth century has become
widespread throughout the world and has gained in strength) as a
result of which men of similar ethnic background are anxious for
political autonomy and unification into a single nation. For many
reasons this cannot always be effected, and consequently minority
peoples are often obliged to live within the territories of a nation
of a different ethnic origin. This situation gives rise to serious
problems.
95. It is quite clear that any attempt to check the vitality and
growth of these ethnic minorities is a flagrant violation of justice;
the more so if such perverse efforts are aimed at their very extinction
.
96. Indeed, the best interests of justice are served by those public
authorities who do all they can to improve the human conditions
of the members of these minority groups, especially in what concerns
their language, culture, ancient traditions, and their economic
activity and enterprise. (57)
A Cautionary Note
97. It is worth noting, however, that these minority groups, in
reaction, perhaps, to the enforced hardships of their present situation,
or to historical circumstances, frequently tend to magnify unduly
characteristics proper to their own people. They even rate them
above those human values which are common to all mankind, as though
the good of the entire human family should subserve the interests
of their own particular groups. A more reasonable attitude for such
people to adopt would be to recognize the advantages, too, which
accrue to them from their own special situation. They should realize
that their constant association with a people steeped in a different
civilization from their own has no small part to play in the development
of their own particular genius and spirit. Little by little they
can absorb into their very being those virtues which characterize
the other nation. But for this to happen these minority groups must
enter into some kind of association with the people in whose midst
they are living, and learn to share their customs and way of life.
It will never happen if they sow seeds of disaffection which can
only produce a harvest of evils, stifling the political development
of nations.
Active Solidarity
98. Since relationships between States must be regulated in accordance
with the principles of truth and justice, States must further these
relationships by taking positive steps to pool their material and
spiritual resources. In many cases this can be achieved by all kinds
of mutual collaboration; and this is already happening in our own
day in the economic, social, political, educational, health and
athletic spheres-and with beneficial results. We must bear in mind
that of its very nature civil authority exists, not to confine men
within the frontiers of their own nations, but primarily to protect
the common good of the State, which certainly cannot be divorced
from the common good of the entire human family
99. Thus, in pursuing their own interests, civil societies, far
from causing injury to others, must join plans and forces whenever
the efforts of particular States cannot achieve the desired goal.
But in doing so great care must be taken. What is beneficial to
some States may prove detrimental rather than advantageous to others.
Contacts Between Races
100. Furthermore, the universal common good requires the encouragement
in all nations of every kind of reciprocation between citizens and
their intermediate societies. There are many parts of the world
where we find groupings of people of more or less different ethnic
origin. Nothing must be allowed to prevent reciprocal relations
between them. Indeed such a prohibition would flout the very spirit
of an age which has done so much to nullify the distances separating
peoples.
Nor must one overlook the fact that whatever their ethnic background,
men possess, besides the special characteristics which distinguish
them from other men, other very important elements in common with
the rest of mankind. And these can form the basis of their progressive
development and self-realization especially in regard to spiritual
values. They have, therefore, the right and duty to carry on their
lives with others in society.
The Proper Balance Between Population, Land and Capital
101. As everyone is well aware, there are some countries where there
is an imbalance between the amount of arable land and the number
of inhabitants; others where there is an imbalance between the richness
of the resources and the instruments of agriculture available. It
is imperative, therefore, that nations enter into collaboration
with each other, and facilitate the circulation of goods, capital
and manpower. (58)
102. We advocate in such cases the policy of bringing the work to
the workers, wherever possible, rather than bringing workers to
the scene of the work. In this way many people will be afforded
an opportunity of increasing their resources without being exposed
to the painful necessity of uprooting themselves from their own
homes, settling in a strange environment, and forming new social
contacts.
The Problem of Political Refugees
103. The deep feelings of paternal love for all mankind which God
has implanted in Our heart makes it impossible for Us to view without
bitter anguish of spirit the plight of those who for political reasons
have been exiled from their own homelands. There are great numbers
of such refugees at the present time, and many are the sufferings-the
incredible sufferings-to which they are constantly exposed.
104. Here surely is our proof that, in defining the scope of a just
freedom within which individual citizens may live lives worthy of
their human dignity, the rulers of some nations have been far too
restrictive. Sometimes in States of this kind the very right to
freedom is called in question, and even flatly denied. We have here
a complete reversal of the right order of society, for the whole
raison d'etre of public authority is to safeguard the interests
of the community. Its sovereign duty is to recognize the noble realm
of freedom and protect its rights.
The Refugee's Rights
105. For this reason, it is not irrelevant to draw the attention
of the world to the fact that these refugees are persons and all
their rights as persons must be recognized. Refugees cannot lose
these rights simply because they are deprived of citizenship of
their own States.
106. And among man's personal rights we must include his right to
enter a country in which he hopes to be able to provide more fittingly
for himself and his dependents. It is therefore the duty of State
officials to accept such immigrants and-so far as the good of their
own community, rightly understood, permits-to further the aims of
those who may wish to become members of a new society.
Commendable Efforts
107. We therefore take this opportunity of giving Our public approval
and commendation to every undertaking, founded on the principles
of human solidarity or of Christian charity, which aims at relieving
the distress of those who are compelled to emigrate from their own
country to another.
108. And We must indeed single out for the praise of all right-minded
men those international agencies which devote all their energies
to this most important work.
Causes of the Arms Race
109. On the other hand, We are deeply distressed to see the enormous
stocks of armaments that have been, and continue to be, manufactured
in the economically more developed countries. This policy is involving
a vast outlay of intellectual and material resources, with the result
that the people of these countries are saddled with a great burden,
while other countries lack the help they need for their economic
and social development .
110. There is a common belief that under modern conditions peace
cannot be assured except on the basis of an equal balance of armaments
and that this factor is the probable cause of this stockpiling of
armaments. Thus, if one country increases its military strength,
others are immediately roused by a competitive spirit to augment
their own supply of armaments. And if one country is equipped with
atomic weapons, others consider themselves justified in producing
such weapons themselves, equal in destructive force.
111. Consequently people are living in the grip of constant fear.
They are afraid that at any moment the impending storm may break
upon them with horrific violence. And they have good reasons for
their fear, for there is certainly no lack of such weapons. While
it is difficult to believe that anyone would dare to assume responsibility
for initiating the appalling slaughter and destruction that war
would bring in its wake, there is no denying that the conflagration
could be started by some chance and unforeseen circumstance. Moreover,
even though the monstrous power of modern weapons does indeed act
as a deterrent, there is reason to fear that the very testing of
nuclear devices for war purposes can, if continued, lead to serious
danger for various forms of life on earth.
Need for Disarmament
112. Hence justice, right reason, and the recognition of man's dignity
cry out insistently for a cessation to the arms race. The stock-piles
of armaments which have been built up in various countries must
be reduced all round and simultaneously by the parties concerned.
Nuclear weapons must be banned. A general agreement must be reached
on a suitable disarmament program, with an effective system of mutual
control. In the words of Pope Pius XII: "The calamity of a
world war, with the economic and social ruin and the moral excesses
and dissolution that accompany it, must not on any account be permitted
to engulf the human race for a third time.'' (59)
113. Everyone, however, must realize that, unless this process of
disarmament be thoroughgoing and complete, and reach men's very
souls, it is impossible to stop the arms race, or to reduce armaments,
or-and this is the main thing-ultimately to abolish them entirely.
Everyone must sincerely co-operate in the effort to banish fear
and the anxious expectation of war from men's minds. But this requires
that the fundamental principles upon which peace is based in today's
world be replaced by an altogether different one, namely, the realization
that true and lasting peace among nations cannot consist in the
possession of an equal supply of armaments but only in mutual trust.
And We are confident that this can be achieved, for it is a thing
which not only is dictated by common sense, but is in itself most
desirable and most fruitful of good.
Three Motives
114. Here, then, we have an objective dictated first of all by reason.
There is general agreement-or at least there should be-that relations
between States, as between individuals, must be regulated not by
armed force, but in accordance with the principles of right reason:
the principles, that is, of truth, justice and vigorous and sincere
co-operation.
115. Secondly, it is an objective which We maintain is more earnestly
to be desired. For who is there who does not feel the craving to
be rid of the threat of war, and to see peace preserved and made
daily more secure?
116. And finally it is an objective which is rich with possibilities
for good. Its advantages will be felt everywhere, by individuals,
by families, by nations, by the whole human race. The warning of
Pope Pius XII still rings in our ears: "Nothing is lost by
peace; everything may be lost by war." (60)
A Call to Unsparing Effort
117. We therefore consider it Our duty as the vicar on earth of
Jesus Christ-the Saviour of the world, the Author of peace-and as
interpreter of the most ardent wishes of the whole human family,
in the fatherly love We bear all mankind, to beg and beseech mankind,
and above all the rulers of States, to be unsparing of their labor
and efforts to ensure that human affairs follow a rational and dignified
course.
118. In their deliberations together, let men of outstanding wisdom
and influence give serious thought to the problem of achieving a
more human adjustment of relations between States throughout the
world. It must be an adjustment that is based on mutual trust, sincerity
in negotiation, and the faithful fulfilment of obligations assumed.
Every aspect of the problem must be examined, so that eventually
there may emerge some point of agreement from which to initiate
treaties which are sincere, lasting, and beneficial in their effects.
119. We, for Our part, will pray unceasingly that God may bless
these labors by His divine assistance, and make them fruitful.
In Liberty
120. Furthermore, relations between States must be regulated by
the principle of freedom. This means that no country has the right
to take any action that would constitute an unjust oppression of
other countries, or an unwarranted interference in their affairs.
On the contrary, all should help to develop in others an increasing
awareness of their duties, an adventurous and enterprising spirit,
and the resolution to take the initiative for their own advancement
in every field of endeavor.
The Evolution of Economically Under-developed Countries
121. All men are united by their common origin and fellowship, their
redemption by Christ, and their supernatural destiny. They are called
to form one Christian family. In Our encyclical Mater et Magistra,
therefore, We appealed to the more wealthy nations to render every
kind of assistance to those States which are still in the process
of economic development. (6l)
122. It is no small consolation to Us to be able to testify here
to the wide acceptance of Our appeal, and We are confident that
in the years that lie ahead it will be accepted even more widely.
The result We look for is that the poorer States shall in as short
a time as possible attain to a degree of economic development that
enables their citizens to live in conditions more in keeping with
their human dignity.
123. Again and again We must insist on the need for helping these
peoples in a way which guarantees to them the preservation of their
own freedom. They must be conscious that they are themselves playing
the major role in their economic and social development; that they
are themselves to shoulder the main burden of it.
124. Hence the wisdom of Pope Pius XII's teaching: "A new order
founded on moral principles is the surest bulwark against the violation
of the freedom, integrity and security of other nations, no matter
what may be their territorial extension or their capacity for defense.
For although it is almost inevitable that the larger States, in
view of their greater power and vaster resources, will themselves
decide on the norms governing their economic associations with small
States, nevertheless these smaller States cannot be denied their
right, in keeping with the common good, to political freedom, and
to the adoption of a position of neutrality in the conflicts between
nations. No State can be denied this right, for it is a postulate
of the natural law itself, as also of international law. These smaller
States have also the right of assuring their own economic development.
It is only with the effective guaranteeing of these rights that
smaller nations can fittingly promote the common good of all mankind,
as well as the material welfare and the cultural and spiritual progress
of their own people". (62)
125. The wealthier States, therefore, while providing various forms
of assistance to the poorer, must have the highest possible respect
for the latter's national characteristics and timehonored civil
institutions. They must also repudiate any policy of domination.
If this can be achieved, then "a precious contribution will
have been made to the formation of a world community, in which each
individual nation, conscious of its rights and duties, can work
on terms of equality with the rest for the attainment of universal
prosperity." (63)
Signs of the Times
126. Men nowadays are becoming more and more convinced that any
disputes which may arise between nations must be resolved by negotiation
and agreement, and not by recourse to arms.
127. We acknowledge that this conviction owes its origin chiefly
to the terrifying destructive force of modern weapons. It arises
from fear of the ghastly and catastrophic consequences of their
use. Thus, in this age which boasts of its atomic power, it no longer
makes sense to maintain that war is a fit instrument with which
to repair the violation of justice.
128. And yet, unhappily, we often find the law of fear reigning
supreme among nations and causing them to spend enormous sums on
armaments. Their object is not aggression, so they say-and there
is no reason for disbelieving them-but to deter others from aggression.
129. Nevertheless, We are hopeful that, by establishing contact
with one another and by a policy of negotiation, nations will come
to a better recognition of the natural ties that bind them together
as men. We are hopeful, too, that they will come to a fairer realization
of one of the cardinal duties deriving from our common nature: namely,
that love, not fear, must dominate the relationships between individuals
and between nations. It is principally characteristic of love that
it draws men together in all sorts of ways, sincerely united in
the bonds of mind and matter; and this is a union from which countless
blessings can flow.
IV. RELATIONSHIP OF MEN AND OF POLITICAL COMMUNITIES WITH THE WORLD
COMMUNITY
130. Recent progress in science and technology has had a profound
influence on man's way of life. This progress is a spur to men all
over the world to extend their collaboration and association with
one another in these days when material resources, travel from one
country to another, and technical information have so vastly increased.
This has led to a phenomenal growth in relationships between individuals,
families and intermediate associations belonging to the various
nations, and between the public authorities of the various political
communities. There is also a growing economic interdependence between
States. National economies are gradually becoming so interdependent
that a kind of world economy is being born from the simultaneous
integration of the economies of individual States. And finally,
each country's social progress, order, security and peace are necessarily
linked with the social progress, order, security and peace of every
other country.
131. From this it is clear that no State can fittingly pursue its
own interests in isolation from the rest, nor, under such circumstances,
can it develop itself as it should. The prosperity and progress
of any State is in part consequence, and in part cause, of the prosperity
and progress of all other States.
Inadequacy of Modern States to Ensure Universal Common Good the
132. No era will ever succeed in destroying the unity of the human
family, for it consists of men who are all equal by virtue of their
natural dignity. Hence there will always be an imperative need-born
of man's very nature-to promote in sufficient measure the universal
common good; the good, that is, of the whole human family.
133. In the past rulers of States seem to have been able to make
sufficient provision for the universal common good through the normal
diplomatic channels, or by top-level meetings and discussions, treaties
and agreements; by using, that is, the ways and means suggested
by the natural law, the law of nations, or international law.
134. In our own day, however, mutual relationships between States
have undergone a far reaching change. On the one hand, the universal
common good gives rise to problems of the utmost gravity, complexity
and urgency-especially as regards the preservation of the security
and peace of the whole world. On the other hand, the rulers of individual
nations, being all on an equal footing, largely fail in their efforts
to achieve this, however much they multiply their meetings and their
endeavors to discover more fitting instruments of justice. And this
is no reflection on their sincerity and enterprise. It is merely
that their authority is not sufficiently influential.
135. We are thus driven to the conclusion that the shape and structure
of political life in the modern world, and the influence exercised
by public authority in all the nations of the world are unequal
to the task of promoting the common good of all peoples.
Connection Between the Common Good and Political Authority
136. Now, if one considers carefully the inner significance of the
common good on the one hand, and the nature and function of public
authority on the other, one cannot fail to see that there is an
intrinsic connection between them. Public authority, as the means
of promoting the common good in civil society, is a postulate of
the moral order. But the moral order likewise requires that this
authority be effective in attaining its end. Hence the civil institutions
in which such authority resides, becomes operative and promotes
its ends, are endowed with a certain kind of structure and efficacy:
a structure and efficacy which make such institutions capable of
realizing the common good by ways and means adequate to the changing
historical conditions.
137. Today the universal common good presents us with problems which
are world-wide in their dimensions; problems, therefore, which cannot
be solved except by a public authority with power, organization
and means co-extensive with these problems, and with a world-wide
sphere of activity. Consequently the moral order itself demands
the establishment of some such general form of public authority.
Public Authority Instituted by Common Consent and Not Imposed by
Force
138. But this general authority equipped with world-wide power and
adequate means for achieving the universal common good cannot be
imposed by force. It must be set up with the consent of all nations.
If its work is to be effective, it must operate with fairness, absolute
impartiality, and with dedication to the common good of all peoples.
The forcible imposition by the more powerful nations of a universal
authority of this kind would inevitably arouse fears of its being
used as an instrument to serve the interests of the few or to take
the side of a single nation, and thus the influence and effectiveness
of its activity would be undermined. For even though nations may
differ widely in material progress and military strength, they are
very sensitive as regards their juridical equality and the excellence
of their own way of life. They are right, therefore, in their reluctance
to submit to an authority imposed by force, established without
their co-operation, or not accepted of their own accord.
The Universal Common Good and Personal Rights
139. The common good of individual States is something that cannot
be determined without reference to the human person, and the same
is true of the common good of all States taken together. Hence the
public authority of the world community must likewise have as its
special aim the recognition, respect, safeguarding and promotion
of the rights of the human person. This can be done by direct action,
if need be, or by the creation throughout the world of the sort
of conditions in which rulers of individual States can more easily
carry out their specific functions.
The Principle of Subsidiarity
140. The same principle of subsidiarity which governs the relations
between public authorities and individuals, families and intermediate
societies in a single State, must also apply to the relations between
the public authority of the world community and the public authorities
of each political community. The special function of this universal
authority must be to evaluate and find a solution to economic, social,
political and cultural problems which affect the universal common
good. These are problems which, because of their extreme gravity,
vastness and urgency, must be considered too difficult for the rulers
of individual States to solve with any degree of success.
141. But it is no part of the duty of universal authority to limit
the sphere of action of the public authority of individual States,
or to arrogate any of their functions to itself. On the contrary,
its essential purpose is to create world conditions in which the
public authorities of each nation, its citizens and intermediate
groups, can carry out their tasks, fullfill their duties and claim
their rights with greater security. (64)
Modern Developments
142. The United Nations Organization (U.N.) was established, as
is well known, on June 26, 1945. To it were subsequently added lesser
organizations consisting of members nominated by the public authority
of the various nations and entrusted with highly important international
functions in the economics, social, cultural, educational and health
fields. The United Nations Organization has the special aim of maintaining
and strengthening peace between nations, and of encouraging and
assisting friendly relations between them, based on the principles
of equality, mutual respect, and extensive cooperation in every
field of human endeavor.
143. A clear proof of the farsightedness of this organization is
provided by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights passed by
the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948. The preamble
of this declaration affirms that the genuine recognition and complete
observance of all the rights and freedoms outlined in the declaration
is a goal to be sought by all peoples and all nations.
144. We are, of course, aware that some of the points in the declaration
did not meet with unqualified approval in some quarters; and there
was justification for this. Nevertheless, We think the document
should be considered a step in the right direction, an approach
toward the establishment of a juridical and political ordering of
the world community. It is a solemn recognition of the personal
dignity of every human being; an assertion of everyone's right to
be free to seek out the truth, to follow moral principles, discharge
the duties imposed by justice, and lead a fully human life. It also
recognized other rights connected with these.
145. It is therefore Our earnest wish that the United Nations Organization
may be able progressively to adapt its structure and methods of
operation to the magnitude and nobility of its tasks. May the day
be not long delayed when every human being can find in this organization
an effective safeguard of his personal rights; those rights, that
is, which derive directly from his dignity as a human person, and
which are therefore universal, inviolable and inalienable. This
is all the more desirable in that men today are taking an ever more
active part in the public life of their own nations, and in doing
so they are showing an increased interest in the affairs of all
peoples. They are becoming more and more conscious of being living
members of the universal family of mankind.
V. PASTORAL EXHORTATIONS
146. Here once more We exhort Our sons to take an active part in
public life, and to work together for the benefit of the whole human
race, as well as for their own political communities. It is vitally
necessary for them to endeavor, in the light of Christian faith,
and with love as their guide, to ensure that every institution,
whether economic, social, cultural or political, be such as not
to obstruct but rather to facilitate man's self betterment, both
in the natural and in the supernatural order.
Scientific Competence, Technical Capacity and Professional Experience
147. And yet, if they are to imbue civilization with right ideals
and Christian principles, it is not enough for Our sons to be illumined
by the heavenly light of faith and to be fired with enthusiasm for
a cause; they must involve themselves in the work of these institutions,
and strive to influence them effectively from within.
148. But in a culture and civilization like our own, which is so
remarkable for its scientific knowledge and its technical discoveries,
clearly no one can insinuate himself into public life unless he
be scientifically competent, technically capable, and skilled in
the practice of his own profession . Apostolate of a Trained Laity
149. And yet even this must be reckoned insufficient to bring the
relationships of daily life into conformity with a more human standard,
based, as it must be, on truth, tempered by justice, motivated by
mutual love, and holding fast to the practice of freedom.
150. If these policies are really to become operative, men must
first of all take the utmost care to conduct their various temporal
activities in accordance with the laws which govern each and every
such activity, observing the principles which correspond to their
respective natures. Secondly, men's actions must be made to conform
with the precepts of the moral order. This means that their behavior
must be such as to reflect their consciousness of exercising a personal
right or performing a personal duty. Reason has a further demand
to make. In obedience to the providential designs and commands of
God respecting our salvation and neglecting the dictates of conscience,
men must conduct themselves in their temporal activity in such a
way as to effect a thorough integration of the principal spiritual
values with those of science, technology and the professions.
Integration of Faith and Action
151. In traditionally Christian States at the present time, civil
institutions evince a high degree of scientific and technical progress
and possess abundant machinery for the attainment of every kind
of objective. And yet it must be owned that these institutions are
often but slightly affected by Christian motives and a Christian
spirit.
152. One may well ask the reason for this, since the men who have
largely contributed-and who are still contributing-to the creation
of these institutions are men who are professed Christians, and
who live their lives, at least in part, in accordance with the precepts
of the gospels. In Our opinion the explanation lies in a certain
cleavage between faith and practice. Their inner, spiritual unity
must be restored, so that faith may be the light and love the motivating
force of all their actions.
Integral Education
153. We consider too that a further reason for this very frequent
divorce between faith and practice in Christians is an inadequate
education in Christian teaching and Christian morality. In many
places the amount of energy devoted to the study of secular subjects
is all too often out of pro portion to that devoted to the study
of religion. Scientific training reaches a very high level, whereas
religious training generally does not advance beyond the elementary
stage. It is essential, therefore, that the instruction given to
our young people be complete and continuous, and imparted in such
a way that moral goodness and the cultivation of religious values
may keep pace with scientific knowledge and continually advancing
technical progress. Young people must also be taught how to carry
out their own particular obligations in a truly fitting manner.
(65)
Constant Endeavor
154. In this connection We think it opportune to point out how difficult
it is to understand clearly the relation between the objective requirements
of justice and concrete situations; to define, that is, correctly
to what degree and in what form doctrinal principles and directives
must be applied in the given state of human society.
155. The definition of these degrees and forms is all the more difficult
in an age such as ours, driven forward by a fever of activity. And
yet this is the age in which each one of us is required to make
his own contribution to the universal common good. Daily is borne
in on us the need to make the reality of social life conform better
to the requirements of justice. Hence Our sons have every reason
for not thinking that they can relax their efforts and be satisfied
with what they have already achieved.
156. What has so far been achieved is insufficient compared with
what needs to be done; all men must realize that. Every day provides
a more important, a more fitting enterprise to which they must turn
their hands-industry, trade unions, professional organizations,
insurance, cultrual institutions, the law, politics, medical and
recreational facilities, and other such activities. The age in which
we live needs all these things. It is an age in which men, having
discovered the atom and achieved the breakthrough into outer space,
are now exploring other avenues, leading to almost limitless horizons.
Relations Between Catholics and Non-Catholics in Social and Economic
Affairs
157. The principles We have set out in this document take their
rise from the very nature of things. They derive, for the most part,
from the consideration of man's natural rights. Thus the putting
of these principles into effect frequently involves extensive co-operation
between Catholics and those Christians who are separated from this
Apostolic See. It even involves the cooperation of Catholics with
men who may not be Christians but who nevertheless are reasonable
men, and men of natural moral integrity. "In such circumstances
they must, of course, bear themselves as Catholics, and do nothing
to compromise religion and morality. Yet at the same time they should
show themselves animated by a spirit of understanding and unselfishness,
ready to co-operate loyally in achieving objects which are good
in themselves, or conducive to good." (66)
Error and the Errant
158. It is always perfectly justifiable to distinguish between error
as such and the person who falls into error-even in the case of
men who err regarding the truth or are led astray as a result of
their inadequate knowledge, in matters either of religion or of
the highest ethical standards. A man who has fallen into error does
not cease to be a man. He never forfeits his personal dignity; and
that is something that must always be taken into account. Besides,
there exists in man's very nature an undying capacity to break through
the barriers of error and seek the road to truth. God, in His great
providence, is ever present with His aid. Today, maybe, a man lacks
faith and turns aside into error; tomorrow, perhaps, illumined by
God's light, he may indeed embrace the truth.
Catholics who, in order to achieve some external good, collaborate
with unbelievers or with those who through error lack the fullness
of faith in Christ, may possibly provide the occasion or even the
incentive for their conversion to the truth.
Philosophies and Historical Movements
l59. Again it is perfectly legitimate to make a clear distinction
between a false philosophy of the nature, origin and purpose of
men and the world, and economic, social, cultural, and political
undertakings, even when such undertakings draw their origin and
inspiration from that philosophy. True, the philosophic formula
does not change once it has been set down in precise terms, but
the undertakings clearly cannot avoid being influenced to a certain
extent by the changing conditions in which they have to operate.
Besides, who can deny the possible existence of good and commendable
elements in these undertakings, elements which do indeed conform
to the dictates of right reason, and are an expression of man's
lawful aspirations?
160. It may sometimes happen, therefore, that meetings arranged
for some practical end-though hitherto they were thought to be altogether
useless-may in fact be fruitful at the present time, or at least
offer prospects of success. But whether or not the moment for such
cooperation has arrived, and the manner and degree of such co-operation
in the attainment of economic, social, cultural and political advantages-these
are matters for prudence to decide; prudence, the queen of all the
virtues which rule the lives of men both as individuals and in society.
As far as Catholics are concerned, the decision rests primarily
with those who take a leading part in the life of the community,
and in these specific fields. They must, however, act in accordance
with the principles of the natural law, and observe the Church's
social teaching and the directives of ecclesiastical authority.
For it must not be forgotten that the Church has the right and duty
not only to safeguard her teaching on faith and morals, but also
to exercise her authority over her sons by intervening in their
external affairs whenever a judgment has to be made concerning the
practical application of this teaching. (67)
Little by Little
161. There are indeed some people who, in their generosity of spirit,
burn with a desire to institute wholesale reforms whenever they
come across situations which show scant regard for justice or are
wholly out of keeping with its claims. They tackle the problem with
such impetuosity that one would think they were embarking on some
political revolution.
162. We would remind such people that it is the law of nature that
all things must be of gradual growth. If there is to be any improvement
in human institutions, the work must be done slowly and deliberately
from within. Pope Pius XII expressed it in these terms: "Salvation
and justice consist not in the uprooting of an outdated system,
but in a well designed policy of development. Hotheadedness was
never constructive; it has always destroyed everything. It has inflamed
passions, but never assuaged them. It sows no seeds but those of
hatred and destruction. Far from bringing about the reconciliation
of contending parties, it reduces men and political parties to the
necessity of laboriously redoing the work of the past, building
on the ruins that disharmony has left in its wake."68
An Immense Task
163. Hence among the very serious obligations incumbent upon men
of high principles, We must include the task of establishing new
relationships in human society, under the mastery and guidance of
truth, justice, charity and freedom-relations between individual
citizens, between citizens and their respective States, between
States, and finally between individuals, families, intermediate
associations and States on the one hand, and the world community
on the other. There is surely no one who will not consider this
a most exalted task, for it is one which is able to bring about
true peace in accordance with divinely established order.
164. Considering the need, the men who are shouldering this responsibility
are far too few in number, yet they are deserving of the highest
recognition from society, and We rightfully honor them with Our
public praise. We call upon them to persevere in their ideals, which
are of such tremendous benefit to mankind. At the same time We are
encouraged to hope that many more men, Christians especially, will
join their cause, spurred on by love and the realization of their
duty. Everyone who has joined the ranks of Christ must be a glowing
point of light in the world, a nucleus of love, a leaven of the
whole mass. He will be so in proportion to his degree of spiritual
union with God.
165. The world will never be the dwellingplace of peace, till peace
has found a home in the heart of each and every man, till every
man preserves in himself the order ordained by God to be preserved.
That is why St. Augustine asks the question: "Does your mind
desire the strength to gain the mastery over your passions? Let
it submit to a greater power, and it will conquer all beneath it.
And peace will be in you-true, sure, most ordered peace. What is
that order? God as ruler of the mind; the mind as ruler of the body.
Nothing could be more orderly." (69)
The Prince of Peace
166. Our concern here has been with problems which are causing men
extreme anxiety at the present time; problems which are intimately
bound up with the progress of human society. Unquestionably, the
teaching We have given has been inspired by a longing which We feel
most keenly, and which We know is shared by all men of good will:
that peace may be assured on earth.
167. We who, in spite of Our inadequacy, are nevertheless the vicar
of Him whom the prophet announced as the Prince of Peace, (70) conceive
of it as Our duty to devote all Our thoughts and care and energy
to further this common good of all mankind. Yet peace is but an
empty word, if it does not rest upon that order which Our hope prevailed
upon Us to set forth in outline in this encyclical. It is an order
that is founded on truth, built up on justice, nurtured and animated
by charity, and brought into effect under the auspices of freedom.
168. So magnificent, so exalted is this aim that human resources
alone, even though inspired by the most praiseworthy good will,
cannot hope to achieve it. God Himself must come to man's aid with
His heavenly assistance, if human society is to bear the closest
possible resemblance to the kingdom of God.
169. The very order of things therefore, demands that during this
sacred season we pray earnestly to Him who by His bitter passion
and death washed away men's sins, which are the fountainhead of
discord, misery and inequality; to Him who shed His blood to reconcile
the human race to the heavenly Father, and bestowed the gifts of
peace. "For He is our peace, who hath made both one . . . And
coming, He preached peace to you that were afar off; and peace to
them that were nigh.'' (71)
170. The sacred liturgy of these days reechoes the same message:
"Our Lord Jesus Christ, after His resurrection stood in the
midst of His disciples and said: Peace be upon you, alleluia. The
disciples rejoiced when they saw the Lord." (72) It is Christ,
therefore, who brought us peace; Christ who bequeathed it to us:
"Peace I leave with you: my peace I give unto you: not as the
world giveth, do I give unto you." (73)
171. Let us, then, pray with all fervor for this peace which our
divine Redeemer came to bring us. May He banish from the souls of
men whatever might endanger peace. May He transform all men into
witnesses of truth, justice and brotherly love. May He illumine
with His light the minds of rulers, so that, besides caring for
the proper material welfare of their peoples, they may also guarantee
them the fairest gift of peace.
Finally, may Christ inflame the desires of all men to break through
the barriers which divide them, to strengthen the bonds of mutual
love, to learn to understand one another, and to pardon those who
have done them wrong. Through His power and inspiration may all
peoples welcome each other to their hearts as brothers, and may
the peace they long for ever flower and ever reign among them.
172. And so, dear brothers, with the ardent wish that peace may
come upon the flocks committed to your care, for the special benefit
of those who are most lowly and in the greatest need of help and
defense, lovingly in the Lord We bestow on you, on Our priests both
secular and regular, on religious both men and women, on all the
faithful and especially those who give wholehearted obedience to
these Our exhortations, Our Apostolic Blessing. And upon all men
of good will, to whom We also address this encyclical, We implore
from God health and prosperity.
Given at Rome, at St. Peter's, on Holy Thursday, the eleventh day
of April, in the year 1963, the fifth of Our Pontificate.
JOHN XXIII
NOTES
LATIN TEXT: Acta Apostolicae Sedis, 55 (1963), 257-304.
ENGLISH TRANSLATION: The Pope Speaks, 9 (1963), 13-48.
REFERENCES:
(1) Ps. 8:1.
(2) Ps. 103:24.
(2a) In the Latin text this paragraph is part of the preceding one,
hence we have not assigned it a number. For format reasons we have
broken paragraphs down in a few places but have kept our numbering
system keyed to the Latin paragraphs.-Ed. of TPS
(3) Cf. Gen. 1:26.
(4) Ps. 8:5-6.
(5) Rom. 2:15.
(6) Cf. Ps. 18:8-11.
(7) Cf. Pius XII's broadcast message, Christmas 1942, AAS 35 (1943)
9-24; and John XXIII's sermon, Jan. 4, 1963, AAS 55 (1963) 89-91.
(8) Cf. Pius XI's encyclical letter Divini Redemptoris, AAS 29 (1931)
78; and Pius XII's broadcast message, Pentecost, June 1, 1941, AAS
33 (1941) 195-205.
(9) Cf. Pius XII's broadcast message, Christmas 1942, AAS 35 (1943)
9-24.
(10) Divinae Institutiones, lib. IV, c.28.2; PL 6.535.
(11) Encyclical letter "Libertas praestantissimum," Acta
Leonis XIII, VIII, 1888, pp. 237-238.
(12) Cf. Pius XII's broadcast message, Christmas 1942, AAS 35 (1943)
9-24.
(13) Cf. Pius XI's encyclical letter Casti connubii, AAS 22 (1930)
539-592, and Pius XII's broadcast message, Christmas 1942, AAS 35
(1943) 9-24.
(14) Cf. Pius XII's broadcast message, Pentecost, June 1 ,1941,
AAS 33 (1941) 201.
(15) Cf. Leo XIII's encyclical letter Rerum novarum, Acta Leonis
XIII, XI, 1891, pp. 128-129.
(16) Cf John XXIII's encyclical letter Mater et Magistra, AAS 53
(1961) 422.
(17) Cf. Pius XII's broadcast message, Pentecost, June 1, 1941,
AAS 33 (1941) 201.
(18) John XXIII's encyclical letter Mater et Magistra, AAS 53 (1961)
428.
(19) Cf. ibid., p. 430; TPS v. 7, no. 4, p. 318.
(20) Cf. Leo XIII's encyclical letter Rerum novarum, Acta Leonis
XIII, XI, 1891, pp. 134-142; Pius XI's encyclical letter Quadregesimo
anno, AAS 23 (1931) 199-200; and Pius XII's encyclical letter Sertum
laetitiae, AAS 31 (1939) 635-644.
(21) Cf. AAS 53 (1961) 430.
(22) Cf. Pius XII's broadcast message, Christmas 1952, AAS 45 (1953)
36-46.
(23) Cf. Pius XII's broadcast message, Christmas 1944, AAS 37 (1945)
12.
(24) Cf. Pius XII's broadcast message, Christmas 1942, AAS 3 | |
